AUSTRONESIAN PEOPLE
The term Austronesian peoples refers to a population group present in Southeast Asia or Oceania who speak, or had ancestors who spoke, one of the Austronesian languages. Apart from the Polynesian people of Oceania, the Austronesian people include: Taiwanese Aborigines, the majority ethnic groups of East Timor, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Western scholars believe the Austronesian people originated on the island of Taiwan following the migration of pre-Austronesian-speaking peoples from continental Asia approximately 10,000-6000 B.C. Due to a lengthy split from the Pre-Austronesian populations, the Proto-Austronesian language; the cultures and ethnic groups of the Austronesian peoples began on Taiwan approximately 6,000 years ago.
The Austronesian people themselves have a variety of different traditions and history of their origins. According to most Western scholars, however, the Austronesian people originated in the island of Taiwan, and are spread as far away as Madagascar in the Indian Ocean and the Polynesian islands of the Pacific Ocean
According to mainstream Western studies, a large scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000-2500 B.C. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration. These first settlers may have landed in northern Luzon in the island of the Philippines intermingling with the earlier Austral-Melanesian population who had inhabited the islands about 23,000 years earlier. Over the next thousand years, the Austronesian people migrated south-east to the rest of the Philippine Islands, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian people of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BE.CO., and 500 A.DO. respectively. The Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on to Madagascar.
Sailing from Melanesia and Micronesia, the Austronesian people discovered Polynesia by 1000 BE.CO. These people settled most of the Pacific Islands. In the Indian Ocean, sailing west from Maritime Southeast Asia. the Austronesian people reached Madagascar by 200 A.D.
Similar results by recent studies by Stanford University, in the United States, support the idea that there is a wide variety of paternal ancestry among the Austronesian people, aside from European introgression found in Maritime Southeast Asia, Oceania and Madagascar. They constitute the dominant ethnic group in Maritime Southeast Asia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and Madagascar. An estimated figure of around 380,000,000 people living in these regions are of Austronesian descent
The early Austronesian peoples considered the sea as the basic tenet of their life. Following their diaspora to Southeast Asia and Oceania, they used boats to migrate to other islands. Boats of different sizes and shapes have been found in every Austronesian culture, from Madagascar, Maritime Southeast Asia, to Polynesia, and have different names.
In Southeast Asia, head-hunting was particularly restricted to the highlands as a result of warfare. Mummification is only found among the highland Austronesian Filipinos, as well as in some Indonesian groups in the Celebes and Sumatra.
By the beginning of the first millennium A.D., most of the Austronesian inhabitants in Maritime Southeast Asia began trading with India and China, allowing the establishment of Hinduism and Buddhism. Muslim traders from the Arabian peninsula were thought to have brought Islam by the 10th century. Islam was established as the dominant religion in the Indonesian archipelago by the 16th century. Christianity is normally found in the islands of the Philippines, East Timor, Papua New Guinea, most of the Pacific Islands, Australia, New Zealand and Madagascar. The Austronesian inhabitants of Polynesia were, to a large degree, unaffected by this cultural trade, and were able to retain their indigenous culture in the Pacific region.
The Austronesian music in Maritime Southeast Asia had a mixture of Chinese, Indian and Islamic musical styles and sounds that had fused together with the indigenous Austronesian culture and music. In Indonesia, Gamelan, a type of orchestra that incorporates Xylophone and Metallophone elements, is widely used in its Islamic cultural tradition. In some parts of the southern and northern Philippine Islands, an Islamic gong-drum known as Kulintang, and a gong-chime known as Gangsa, are also used. The Austronesian music of Oceania have retained their indigenous Austronesian sounds. The Slit drum is an indigenous Austronesian musical instrument that was invented and used by the Southeast Asian-Austronesian and Oceanic-Austronesian ethnic groups.
Europeans in search of spices later colonized most of the Austronesian-speaking countries of the Asia-Pacific region, beginning from the 16th century with the Portuguese and Spanish colonization of some parts of Indonesia (present-day East Timor), the Philippines, Palau, Guam and the Mariana Islands; the Dutch colonization of the Indonesian archipelago; the British colonization of Malaysia and Oceania; the French colonization of French Polynesia; and later, the American governance of the Pacific.
Meanwhile, the British, Germans, French, Americans and Japanese began establishing spheres of influence within the Pacific Islands during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Japanese later invaded most of Southeast Asia and some parts of the Pacific during World War II. The latter half of the 20th century initiated independence of modern-day Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippine Islands, and many of the Pacific Island nations.
Foreword
The Austronesian language group probably enjoyed the widest physical dispersion of a single language family prior to the European colonial expansion following Columbus. From the island of Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa, all the way to tiny, isolated Easter Island (Rapa Nui), and extending into Taiwan, Vietnam, Northern Australia, New Zealand and most of the Melanesian and Polynesian Islands, the languages in this single family show the common ancestry by the many cognates (words in common) present.
Today the single language from this family that is spoken by more than 210 million people is Bahasa Indonesia (meaning "The Language of Indonesia"). It is a modern language, based on the centuries-old lingua franca of the East Indian archipelago that comprises Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and parts of the Philippines. This is the region whose spices were sought by European explorers and trading companies -- the very thing that drove Columbus westward to accidentally find the New World that was inhabited by "Indians". The foundation of modern Indonesian is Malay as spoken on both sides of the Straits of Malacca (Selat Melaka). It was endorsed at the inception of the Indonesian Independence movement in the late 1920's, and became the official language of the Republic of Indonesia upon the Proclamation of Independence on 17 August 1945. Today Indonesia encompasses over 18 thousand islands of which perhaps some 6000 have permanent settlements.
Despite that, within Indonesia there are hundreds of regional languages, most of which are members of this Austronesian Language family. By browsing the list below you can see the striking similarities between some of the regional languages and their language cousins found many thousands of kilometers away in almost every direction that the monsoon winds blow. Remarkably, right in the middle of this region, there exists another even richer language family, that of the Papuan Languages. These are found scattered among the inland valley tribes that inhabit present day Papua New Guinea and Indonesia's provinces of Irian Jaya, which cover the western half of the same island. The density of the rainforest and the rugged terrain have combined to keep tribes in almost complete isolation from one another, resulting in the world's greatest diversity of languages for such a small area (it is, in all fairness, the second largest island in the world, roughly the size of Turkey or 15% larger than Texas). It has been said that the Papuan languages on this island account for over 20% of the total number of languages still spoken in the world today.
The Words
These are the words that compare a very basic vocabulary from representative languages of the Austronesian language family. Some words illustrate a large number of cognates across many or all of the languages represented. Others illustrate that differences exist.
The Languages
Indonesian: Formal language of Indonesia, adapted from Malay, which was the lingua franca of the East Indies for over a thousand years. Bahasa Indonesia was officially endorsed as the official language of the emerging independence movement in 1928, and became the official language upon independence from the Dutch in 1945. Its Dutch-based orthography was revised in 1972 when DJ and TJ pairs were dropped (among other improvements). The population of Indonesia is just over 200 million.
Javanese: This is the language of the central and eastern part of the island of Java. It is actually a multi-level language where the level spoken is in direct relationship to the social status or politeness required between the individual speakers. In the list below words capitalized are of the higher levels; all CAPS represent the highest level. There are three basic levels, but linguists have identified many more levels comprised of mixtures of vocabulary from adjacent levels according to the particular circumstance. Many words are based on Sanskrit and Kawi, which is an old literary language still used in the famous Wayang shadow puppet plays. This influence goes back to the Hindu and Buddhist period, roughly from the first to tenth centuries of the Christian era. Today approximately 65 million people speak Javanese.
Balinese: This is spoken on the island of Bali. Like Javanese, it is a multi-level language, and words listed below with capitalization are from the higher level. Its roots go back to Javanese, Kawi and Sanskrit since many Javanese Hindus fled to Bali when Islam began to take hold in Java.
Sundanese: Sunda is the westernmost third of the island of Java.
Madurese: Madura is the long, narrow island off the northern coast of eastern Java, very close to the port of Surabaya. The language spoken in Madura is related to
Javanese, Malay and other languages from coastal groups on nearby islands, such as Makassar and Bugis people of Sulawesi.
Sawu: This small island lies directly south of the central part of Flores in the arc of islands that includes Sumba, Roti and Timor. There are about 25 languages in this sub-group, including those on Sumba, Roti, Timor, Komodo, and parts of Flores and Sumbawa. Sawu is a unique island in that it has historically been more populated than neighboring islands because its people have learned to avoid seasonal famines through cultivation of the lontar palm, Borassus flabelifer, whose nutricious juice could be consumed when all other food sources were unavailable. About 60000 people live on this island, which was visited by Captain James Cook in 1770 (although the Dutch had already established contact as early as 1648 and had a firm trade treaty when Cook arrived).
Toraja: This language (Toraja Sa'dan) is spoken in the interior of Sulawesi, from the popular tourist destination area called Tana Toraja ("Torajaland"). The people in this area are famous for their burial sites in cliffside caves. Their language is one of a fertile and relatively isolated inland valley culture which seems to have not needed a word for "island".
Acehnese: Acehnese is spoken along the coastal regions of the province of Aceh. There are also some numbers of Acehnese immigrants in Malaysia. Other languages spoken in the province of Aceh include Bahasa Kluet, Bahasa Gayo, Bahasa Alas, and Bahasa Tamiang (a variety of Malay). The indigenous name for Acehnese is 'Basa AcŹh.'
Tetun: Tetum, or Tetun, is one of about 26 languages spoken in East Timor, which is now an independent country. Tetun Praca or Tetun Dili has become a the dominant form throughout most of East Timor. It has also become one of only about four languages spoken in the Indonesian part on Timor Island that lies to the west of East Timor. It is difficult to say whether Tetun will have the linguistic strength to serve as an official language of the new government, since its vocabulary is noticeably thin for such needs.
Tagalog: This is the official language of the Philippines, but only one of many regional languages found on the hundreds of islands.
Hiligaynon: A regional language of the Philippines, Hiligaynon is the lingua franca of the Western Visayas, particularly in the region around Iloilo (Panay Island) but also in parts of Negros, Romblon. There are approximately 7 million speakers of Hiligaynon.
Maori: This is spoken by the Maori people of Aotearoa, which presently is known as New Zealand. Orthography: in the list below the appearance of a tilde ( ~ ) character indicates the preceeding vowel is lengthened.
Fijian: Another Polynesian language from the group of islands comprising Fiji. Despite striking similarities between certain Maori, Rapanui and Hawaii words in the list below, Fijian shows differences. Even between the extreme eastern and western Fijian islands there are significant differences that preclude mutual understanding, unless English or Standard Fijian are used.
Hawaiian: The indiginous language of the people of Hawaii, who are believed to have emigrated from the islands in and around the Philippines centuries ago. It is a phonetically minimized language, with only P, K, H, W, M, N, L, plus vocals and an important glottal stop. Malagasy: This is spoken on the island of Madagascar, off the coast of Africa. It represents the westernmost member of the Austronesian language group. It has many influences from mainland African languages, but is classed as an Austronesian language by virtue of its overwhelmingy Austroesian vocabulary and structure.
Rapanui: This langauge is spoken by the approximately 2000 inhabitants of Easter Island (Rapa Nui), which is one of the most isolated inhabited islands in the world. It too is a member of the Austronesian Language Family, of the Polynesian branch.
Orthography
• ( ' ) indicates a significant glottal stop (like "uh-uh" in English, which would be thusly notated as: uh'uh). This is found in Hawaiian, Madurese and Toraja orthographies, but is common in most Austronesian languages.
• ( ~ ) indicates the preceeding vowel is lengthened. This is found in some Maori words. • ( ~ ) indicates a stress to the preceeding vowel. A few words in Tagalog may be marked as such.
• Words with the first letter capitalized are polite forms used when speaking to elders and respected peers.
• WORDS appearing in all capital letters are extreme polite forms and usually further distance the speakers socially or economically in languages such as Javanese and Balinese.
• Words appearing inside double parenthises ((example)) are impolite or coarse, and would be used to emphasize a social gap by "speaking down", e.g., to mischevious children, or lax servants.
• For Fijian only: b= mb ("number"), n = nd ("sender"), c = th ("those"), g = ng ("singer"), q = ngg (finger), j = ch ("choose"), v = w-v (a bilabial V).
• For Achenese: eu is a single vowel, back high unrounded; it is not a diphthong. ô is more closed than the o.
The List
Indonesian: burung
Javanese: manuk, Peksi
Balinese: kedis, Peksi
Sundanese: manuk
Madurese: mano
Sawu: dowila
Toraja: dassi
Acehnese: cicèm
Tetun: manu, fuik
Tagalog: ibon
Hiligaynon: pispis
Maori: manu
Fijian: manu-manu vuka
Hawaiian: manu
Malagasy: vorona
Rapanui: manu
Dog
Indonesian: anjing
Javanese: asu, Segawon
Balinese: cicing, Asu
Sundanese: anjing
Madurese: pate'
Sawu: ngaka
Toraja: asu
Acehnese:
Tetun:
Tagalog: asu
Hiligaynon:
Maori: kuri~
Fijian: koli
Hawaiian: 'ilio
Malagasy: alika
Rapanui: 'uri
Flower
Indonesian: bunga
Javanese: kembang, Sekar
Balinese: bunga, Sekar
Sundanese: kembang, kusuma
Madurese: kembang, Sekar
Sawu: bunga
Toraja: bunga
Acehnese: bungong
Tetun: ai funan
Tagalog: bulaklak
Hiligaynon: bulak
Maori: pua
Fijian: senikau
Hawaiian: pua
Malagasy: vonikazo
Rapanui: tiare
Fruit
Indonesian: buah
Javanese: woh
Balinese: buah, Woh
Sundanese: buah
Madurese: buwe
Sawu: wue
Toraja:
Acehnese: boh
Tetun: ai funan
Tagalog: prutas [Spanish], bungang-kahoy
Hiligaynon: prutas, bunga
Maori: hua
Fijian: vuanikau ("kau"= "tree")
Hawaiian: hua
Malagasy: voankazo
Rapanui:
Coconut
Indonesian: kelapa
Javanese: krambil, klapa
Balinese: nyuh, Kelapa
Sundanese: kalapa
Madurese: nyior
Sawu: nyiu
Toraja: kaluku
Acehnese: u
Tetun: nuu
Tagalog: buko
Hiligaynon: niyog, lubi, buko, makapuno
Maori: kokonaiti, kokonata (not indigenous, an alliteration)
Fijian: niu
Hawaiian: niu
Malagasy: coco
Rapanui:
Banana
Indonesian: pisang
Javanese: gedhang, Pisang
Balinese: biu, Pisang
Sundanese: cau
Madurese: geddhang
Sawu: womu'u
Toraja: punti
Acehnese: pisang
Tetun: hudi
Tagalog: saging
Hiligaynon: saging
Maori: maika
Fijian: jaina
Hawaiian: mai'a
Malagasy: akondro
Rapanui: maika
Fire
Indonesian: api
Javanese: geni, Latu
Balinese: api, Geni
Sundanese: seuneu
Madurese: apoy
Sawu: ai (the same word is used for fire and water!)
Toraja: api
Acehnese: apuy
Tetun: ahi
Tagalog: apoy
Hiligaynon: kalayo
Maori: ahi
Fijian: buka
Hawaiian: ahi
Malagasy: afo
Rapanui: ahi
Mountain
Indonesian: gunung
Javanese: giri, gunung
Balinese: gunung, giri
Sundanese: gunung
Madurese: gunong
Sawu: lede
Toraja: buntu
Acehnese: glè
Tetun: foho
Tagalog: bundok
Hiligaynon: bukid
Maori: maunga
Fijian: ulunivanua
Hawaiian: mauna
Malagasy: vohitra
Rapanui: maunga
Sun
Indonesian: matahari (mentari) (mata = eye, hari = day)
Javanese: srengenge, Surya
Balinese: matanai, Surya
Sundanese: panonpoe
Madurese: are
Sawu: mada loto
Toraja: allo
Acehnese: mata uroe
Tetun: loro
Tagalog: araw
Hiligaynon: adlaw
Maori: ra~
Fijian: siga (matanisiga, matanivanua)
Hawaiian: la
Malagasy: masoandro (maso = eye, andro = day)
Rapanui: ra'a
Moon
Indonesian: bulan
Javanese: rembulan, Wulan
Balinese: bulan, Sasih
Sundanese: bulan, Sasih
Madurese: bulen
Sawu: waru
Toraja: bulan
Acehnese: buleuen
Tetun: fulan
Tagalog: buwan
Hiligaynon: bulan
Maori: marama
Fijian: vula
Hawaiian: mahina
Malagasy: volana
Rapanui: mahina
Star
Indonesian: bintang
Javanese: lintang
Balinese: bintang
Sundanese: bentang
Madurese: bintang
Sawu: moto
Toraja: bintoen
Acehnese: bintang
Tetun: fitun
Tagalog: tala
Hiligaynon: bitu-on
Maori: whetu~
Fijian: kalo-kalo
Hawaiian: hoku
Malagasy: kintana
Rapanui: hetu'u
Person (M\F)
Indonesian: orang
Javanese: wong, Tiyang
Balinese: jlema-jatma, Anak
Sundanese: jalma, jelema
Madurese: oreng
Sawu: dau
Toraja: tau
Acehnese: ureueng
Tetun: ema
Tagalog: tao
Hiligaynon: tawo
Maori: tangata, koroke~
Fijian: tamata
Hawaiian: kanaka, mea, kama
Malagasy: olona
Rapanui: tangata\vi'e